福师《高级英语（一）》第九课拓展资源
福师《高级英语（一）》第九课拓展资源The Trouble with Television
A prominent anchorman warns of TV’s adverse effect on America’s culture
Background
Broadcasting, Radio and Television, the electromagnetic transmission of audio and video signals to a mass audience. Broadcasting is a major industry in most nations, and popular entertainment, news, and educational programs are transmitted directly into people's homes. Because it represents a critical national resource for communicating information and culture, and because the electromagnetic spectrum allows for only a limited number of broadcast stations, virtually all nations regulate broadcasting within their borders. Many nations operate their own broadcasting systems through a ministry of communications. In some countries where it is believed that broadcasting should represent an independent voice, tax revenues support a public broadcasting authority that is independent of the government. Other countries simply license private broadcasters who make their profits by selling advertising time, or they permit a mixed system of commercial and publicly supported stations.
The U.S. has a mixed system. Most American stations are advertiser supported; about one in ten, however, is noncommercial, and its income is derived from listener or viewer contributions, corporate donations, and government funding. In the U.S., 98 percent of all households have a television and almost 100 percent have a radio. In a typical week, nine out of ten citizens are exposed to radio and television, and in the average American home the television set is on about 7 hours each day, and the radio is on more than 2 hours a day. The immense size of the audience, especially for prime-time network television, is difficult to comprehend in concrete terms. When the president of the U.S., for example, delivers a television address, between 60 and 80 million Americans are likely to be watching. Because of these audience figures, advertisers in the U.S. alone spend more than $24 billion per year to broadcast commercials. Broadcast programming is dominated by popular entertainment, news, and occasional educational shows. Broadcasting is distinguished from “narrowcasting,” that is, the transmission of special-interest programs to much smaller audiences, and from “cable casting,” or the transmission of television and sometimes radio signals directly into the home by means of coaxial cable.Era of Early Television
The third stage of programming lasted from 1945 until the early 1950s, when television began its explosive growth. Unlike that of radio, the debut of television was free from confusion about what constituted effective programming. Television was perceived as “radio with pictures,” and the industry's structure and ratings system were modeled on those of radio; performers and executives were drawn from radio; and many entertainers and entire programs were transferred successfully to television.
During this transition period, radio was forced to redefine its role. As one observer commented, “the radio sets were displaced from the living room and had to be content with the bedroom, the bathroom, the car, or the beach.” Radio turned to popular music and the disc-jockey format. As the need for elaborate studio production and famous stars diminished, radio networks declined in importance, and radio became primarily a locally operated medium. In the 1960s FM radio expanded dramatically, stimulated in part by growing listener interest in the high-fidelity stereophonic offerings of many FM broadcasters.Golden Age of Television
At the beginning of the fourth stage, known as the Golden Age of Television, the reconstituted radio programs dominated the television ratings. Jack Benny, his fellow comedian Red Skelton, and the singer Kate Smith were especially successful. As performers and producers adjusted to the new medium, new stars and programs gradually emerged, notably Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz, who starred in the situation comedy “I Love Lucy,” and Milton Berle, who hosted the variety program “Texaco Star Theater.” In the early years of television's golden age the variety show was the most popular program format. “Your Show of Shows” with comedians Sid Caesar and Imogene Coca, shown on Saturday nights, and “Toast of the Town” with host Ed Sullivan, shown on Sunday nights, became rituals for millions of viewers. Sullivan's program continued as a focal point of popular culture for many years, introducing such performers as the singer Elvis Presley and the British rock group the Beatles. Another television staple of this era was the Western, including “Have Gun, Will Travel” and the long-running “Gunsmoke.” In the late 1950s the action-adventure program became the most prominent format. Throughout the history of television programming the situation comedy has remained popular, proving especially successful for the CBS network. In the 1960s the television networks began to feature movies; reedited motion pictures and special 2-hour “made-for-TV” dramas became major elements in prime-time programming.Television Production
All but a fraction of American television programs are produced in Hollywood, most often in one of several major facilities. Most are modernized motion picture studios that became available as television displaced movies in popularity.An industry ritual is performed each year when Hollywood producers submit proposals for new television series to network executives in New York City. Most proposals are rejected, but a few—usually associated with a strongly successful performer or producer—are accepted for the second phase: the writing of sample scripts. The networks review the scripts and select a small number of them to be developed into pilot programs. Those pilots that appeal to the instincts of the programming executives and produce good ratings in a trial broadcast eventually emerge as regularly scheduled programs.A typical half-hour program episode costs hundreds of thousands of dollars to produce. Not until the program is re-aired as a rerun are the expenses covered and a profit returned to the producers and network. About one-third of the cost goes to the salaries of the performers and writers. The remaining costs are those of studio-space rental, equipment, and the large technical staff needed to handle cameras, lights, sound, editing, and special effects.The Audience
Between the ages of 2 and 65 the average American will watch 72,000 hours of television—at 24 hours a day, a total of 8 full years. The daily average is about 4 hours. The heaviest viewers are housewives and senior citizens. Children watch the same amount of television as do adults; teenagers watch about an hour less per day.Ratings
Much information about television viewing is available, primarily because advertisers and broadcasters want to know the size and type of each program's audience. Independent research companies such as Nielsen Media Research and the Arbitron Company keep a watchful eye on viewers. In one system of research, more than 4000 randomly selected homes are wired to devices called People Meters that determine how many set are turned on during a given time period, which channels are being watched, and who is watching. Several thousand additional households are asked to maintain continuous television diaries, noting each program watched by any household member over the age of two. If appropriate procedures are followed, the size of the national audience can usually be estimated within a few percentage points.Two kinds of ratings are published: the audience rating, in which the number of homes having television sets tuned to a given program is compared with the number possessing a TV set; and the audience share, in which the number turned to a given program is compared with the number of homes in which sets are turned on at the time. To be considered successful and to continue in the following year, a program generally must have an audience share of about 30 percent.Viewer Attention and Recall
Although the television industry focuses attention on shows that have high ratings, most viewers do not turn on the television at a specific time to watch a specific program. Instead, the individual, having decided to watch television, twists the dial to find a program that looks interesting. Concluding that most viewers will watch almost anything, one broadcaster labeled this the “least-objectionable-program” model of television viewing.Research indicates that the television picture is seldom a focus of mental concentration. Brain-wave studies show that viewers tend to fall into a recognizable pattern of relaxation and passivity. Films of people's faces while they watch television at home indicate that about one-third of the time their attention is devoted to some simultaneous project or occurrence; eye contact with the set is highest for movies (76 percent of the time) and lowest for news and commercials (55 percent of the time). About one viewer in four is primarily involved in another activity, such as household chores, conversation, or even reading. Research on the recall of news broadcasts reinforces the conclusion that casual viewing is the norm. In one study, viewers who saw 19 stories in a typical newscast could, later the same evening, spontaneously recall only one; when given brief descriptions of the remaining stories, these viewers could remember seeing only about half of them. Failure to remember details of a specific story from a single newscast, however, is no indication that viewers acquire no information from television. Most news stories, for example, deal with continuing economic or political issues that are covered over long periods of time. The more subtle, cumulative character of knowledge acquisition should not be underestimated.Viewer Opinions
Viewers frequently tell pollsters that television is not as good as it used to be. The Golden Age of Television, when ideas seemed fresher and comedies funnier, may, however, be an illusion of memory. The number of hours viewed per day in the average American home has increased steadily since television was introduced, and watching television remains a constant favorite among leisure activities.Commercials continue to be a primary target for viewer criticism. In a recent study, 43 percent of those surveyed agreed that commercials are generally in poor taste; although 48 percent stated that they would prefer television without the commercials, only 30 percent said they would be willing to pay a small amount to fund noncommercial television. Apparently most viewers believe that commercials are a fair price to pay for “free” television.Social Criticism of Television
Television influences people's mental picture of the world, especially their perceptions of distant events. This is particularly true for younger viewers, who rely heavily on television and other media for their understanding of the world beyond their neighborhoods. As the predominant mass medium, television is greatly criticized for failing to provide a complete, unbiased picture of reality. Similar critiques were leveled at radio, motion pictures, and comic books in the past and may in the future be directed toward new media of mass communications. Criticism of television has focused on three issues: violence, racial and sexual stereotyping, and commercialism. Violence
Some individuals and citizens' groups have expressed concern about the level of violence in television programs, particularly in action-adventure series and cartoons. They argue that viewers, especially children, may learn to see violence as the only way to resolve conflicts. Early experimental researchers compared the play of children who had seen aggressive behavior on television with the play of a control group of children who had watched nonviolent programs. Concern was intensified by findings that indicated a higher level of aggressive play in the violent-television group. Other researchers attempted to determine whether violent programs simply stimulated higher energy levels in children or actually caused them to learn violent and antisocial behavior. The results of different studies conflicted. Some researchers claimed that televised violence actually had a positive cathartic effect, allowing some viewers to release pent-up tensions; these findings, however, were not replicated in further studies. Other scholars pointed out that both prosocial and antisocial behavior can be learned from television.Social scientists find it especially difficult to assess accurately the subtle, cumulative effects of viewing a broad variety of television programs throughout childhood. Distinguishing the possible effects of television from other influences at home and at school is also difficult. Current research suggests that slightly to moderately higher levels of antisocial behavior can be traced to television viewing, but a final verdict has not been reached.Because of the long-standing tradition in the U.S. of freedom of speech and of the press, the government would probably not attempt to directly limit or censor the depiction of violence on television. Among the networks and producers, pressure from concerned citizens continues to be balanced by the undiminished popularity of high-energy action-adventure programs.Racial and Sexual Stereotypes
Television's treatment of sexual and racial stereotypes also has aroused concern. Blacks were long underrepresented in television drama and were rarely shown in roles involving leadership and professional achievement. Few roles depicted women as successful professionals; most often they played the parts of housewives and mothers. In the 1970s the level of televised violence remained unchanged, but the number of women and blacks shown in professional roles expanded greatly. It is unclear, however, whether television simply reflected a changing American society, or whether it played a role in bringing these issues to public attention.Commercialism
Television's emphasis on commercials and on conspicuous consumption of material goods is also criticized. In radio's early days many people believed that even a single commercial would be inappropriate on a public medium and that hucksterism on the airwaves should be forbidden. In some countries, such as the Netherlands, that belief is still strong, and no advertisements are broadcast. In the U.S., however, commercial support became the economic base of the industry. Although the average American accepts the mixture of commercials with regular programming as natural, critics still decry television advertising's subtle forms of propaganda and its emphasis on competitive consumerism. In the absence of public dissatisfaction, however, such critiques are unlikely to bring about change.With the advent of spot advertising in the 1960s, individual sponsors could no longer control or censor particular programs. Nonetheless, most industry observers agree that sponsors seek to protect the image of their products. This concern leads to an atmosphere in which direct confrontation over controversial issues is avoided.World Broadcasting
In the 1970s and early 1980s, worldwide broadcasting expanded dramatically. All industrialized nations now have extensive domestic radio and television facilities, and many are involved in international radiobroadcasting on the short-wave bands. Nearly all developing nations have built or are planning to build a radio and television system; these countries consider mass communications a critical force for economic progress and allocate scarce resources to broadcasting. The governments often play a direct role in programming to promote education, economic awareness, and national consciousness.Patterns of Expansion
Mountainous terrain, widely dispersed population, and lack of electricity have limited the expansion of broadcasting in some areas. The development, however, of inexpensive battery-operated transistor radios has helped to overcome the lack of electricity. In large geographic areas where terrestrial transmitters would be prohibitively expensive, the next step in expanding radio and television broadcasting will probably involve direct transmission from satellites.The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) estimates that more than 1.6 billion radios are now in use in the world—nearly one for every three persons. Radio receivers are not, however, evenly distributed; three out of four are located in the industrialized nations of Europe and North America. Nevertheless, the diffusion of radiobroadcasting has been swift and is continuing. In 1960 only 7 percent of the world's nations had one radio for every five people; by the late 1980s a majority had.Because of the much higher costs for television production and receivers, its broadcasting development generally lags behind that of radio. Of more than 735 million television sets in the world, roughly 80 percent are concentrated in Europe, North America, and Japan. In most developing countries television is limited to major urban areas.Trade in Programs
International trade in television programs is growing rapidly. Each year the U.S. exports several hundred thousand hours of television programming. The price per program varies dramatically; a small developing country may pay only $50, while a major European broadcasting system may pay $5000 or more. Some countries import up to 75 percent of their programming because equivalent local production is expensive and facilities are limited. Some citizens in these countries believe that foreign-dominated programming limits the growth of local culture and language. In some cases strict limits have been set on the percentage of programming that may be imported and rebroadcast. With the development of direct transmission from satellites to entire continents, individual countries may have increasing difficulty in controlling what programs their citizens see and hear.The Future of Broadcasting
In the 1980s mass communications technologies underwent dramatic changes, which are continuing in the 1990s. Innovations in video recording, as well as improved cable-television technology, have brought much greater diversity in programming as well as increased viewer control over what is watched and when. Some observers believe that narrowcasting to smaller, special-interest audiences will become increasingly prominent.By the early 1990s, about 62 percent of all U.S. households were connected to cable television. Many of these cable systems carry more than 30 channels into the home. Many cable systems offer diverse and specialized programming, that includes religious programs, extensive entertainment programming in Spanish and Chinese, children's channels, news channels, sports channels, and channels that screen old movies and reruns. On special premium channels subscribers can view newly released music videos and motion pictures, uncut and uninterrupted by commercials.Cable system operators are facing competition, however, from direct-broadcast satellites, which beam television signals directly to viewers' homes and, in effect, bypass the cablecast. In 1985 the FCC ruled that government restrictions on so-called backyard dish antennas, which receive satellite-delivered signals, cannot be used to limit competition in distributing television programs. By the late 1980s nearly 9 million such antennas were in use.Competition in the video marketplace is intensifying as videocassette recorders, or VCRs, enable viewers to copy programs off the air or purchase programs directly. Videodisc players are also available. They are generally less expensive than VCRs, and the prerecorded discs they play are easier to manufacture, costing only about one-third the price of prerecorded videotapes. Discs, however, cannot yet be rerecorded or reused in the home, as tapes can. In 1984 about 10 percent of U.S. households had VCRs; by 1993 the proportion had reached some 77 percent.Videotapes of movies are now being widely distributed for sale or rental. Viewers can also choose to record programs from a broadcast station or satellite for viewing at a more convenient time. The growing use of VCRs for this purpose caused some legal objections among broadcasters. In 1984 the Supreme Court ruled that home use of VCRs for noncommercial purposes did not constitute copyright infringement.Another new element in television communications is the computer. Through the use of coaxial cable or fiber optic cable, or modified use of the existing telephone system, two-way communication can take place between a home computer terminal and a central facility that provides information and entertainment.Millions of dollars have been spent in developing and marketing new video technology. Whether these new offerings will lead to fundamental changes in the nature of broadcast television and popular entertainment is still unclear. It is apparent, however, that in the 1980s and 90s, as in the early days of radio, broadcasting entered an age of rapid technological change.
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